The enigmatic hawthorn
- Green Fingers
- 2 days ago
- 18 min read
Introduction
What is it about hawthorns? I spend much of my life ducking around and beneath the tree and frequently being scratched. The number of near misses to one or other eyeball is no longer funny. The hawthorn is wicked and yet welcome. The tree also has a serious history and has been revered and feared in equal measure for centuries. On my land, I have plenty of them.
Taxonomy and Botanical Characteristics
The hawthorn belongs to the genus Crataegus and is a member of the Rosaceae family. This includes other genera such as Malus (apples), Prunus (cherries, plums), and Rosa (roses). Hawthorns are deciduous shrubs, or small trees, typically characterised by thorny branches, lobed leaves, white to pink hermaphroditic flowers, and red pome fruits known as haws[i]. Pome fruits consist of a central core containing multiple small seeds, which is enveloped by a tough membrane and surrounded by an edible layer of flesh[ii].
More than 200 species of hawthorn are distributed across the Northern Hemisphere[iii]. Crataegus monogyna (common hawthorn) and Crataegus laevigata (midland hawthorn) dominate in the UK and much of Europe. Together, they often form an integral component of traditional hedgerows. C. monogyna is distinguished by its deeply lobed leaves, while C. laevigata features less divided leaves. These species can hybridise, producing intermediate forms that enrich local genetic diversity[iv]. Historically, the hawthorn has long been regarded as a symbol of spring, fertility, and protection. It has also become a focus of scientific attention for its ecological and environmental contributions[v],[vi].
Ecological Role and Biodiversity Support
1. Hedgerow Habitat and Connectivity
Hawthorn trees are quintessential components of hedgerows, linear features that function as wildlife corridors and ecological networks in otherwise fragmented agricultural landscapes[vii]. In the UK, approximately 50% of hedgerows are dominated by hawthorn, so they are essential in maintaining landscape connectivity[viii]. In addition, the hawthorn tree provides crucial nesting and foraging habitats for more than 150 insect species, including aphids, caterpillars, and beetles. Many of these are prey for birds and small mammals. Hawthorn hedgerows also support amphibians, reptiles, and bats, especially when they are near ditches, streams, or woodland edges[ix].
2. Pollinators and Flowering Phenology
The profuse spring flowering of hawthorn makes it a key resource for early-season pollinators. Studies have shown that C. monogyna flowers attract a broad spectrum of insects, including solitary bees (Andrena, Osmia), honeybees (Apis mellifera), hoverflies, and butterflies[x]. The hawthorn's phenology - typically flowering in the month of May - bridges a crucial time gap between the blooming of early spring plants and summer flora. This helps sustain pollinator populations throughout their active season[xi]. For reference, phenology is the study of cyclical and seasonal natural phenomena , especially in relation to climate and plant or animal life.
3. Frugivores and Seed Dispersal
Haws are an important autumn and winter food source for birds, including thrushes (Turdus spp.), blackbirds (Turdus merula), and fieldfares (Turdus pilaris). These birds disperse hawthorn seeds through endozoochory, thereby promoting germination[xii]. Mammals such as foxes and small rodents also contribute to seed dispersal. For reference, endozoochory is a type of seed dispersal where animals ingest fruits or seeds and subsequently defaecate or regurgitate them, dispersing the seeds to new locations. The process relies on animals, particularly birds and mammals, and is a key mechanism for plant reproduction and biodiversity.
Soil, Microclimate, and Carbon Functions
1. Soil Stabilisation and Nutrient Cycling
Hawthorn root systems help stabilise soils on slopes and field boundaries, reducing erosion and promoting infiltration[xiii]. The leaf litter from hawthorn decomposes relatively quickly, contributing organic matter and nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium to the soil[xiv]. In hedgerows, this nutrient effect is magnified through interactions with mycorrhizal fungi and microbial communities and enhances soil structure and resilience[xv].
2. Carbon Sequestration Potential
Although hawthorn trees are not large, they can still contribute to carbon sequestration. Hedgerows dominated by hawthorn have been estimated to store 26-44 tonnes of carbon per hectare above ground and significantly more below ground[xvi]. On average, a person produces around 4.5 tonnes of CO2 per year globally. This can vary considerably and will depend on factors such as lifestyle, location, and economic status. For example, the average in the UK is around 12.7 tonnes per person, while in some poorer countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, it is more like 0.1 tonnes. A hawthorn’s long lifespan - it can live for up to 400 years - its relatively slow growth and repeated pruning when in a managed system - allows it to function as a persistent carbon sink.
3. Microclimatic Regulation
Hawthorns provide shelter for crops and livestock from wind and sun, and thus help regulate microclimate agroecosystems[xvii]. Their presence in hedgerows creates shaded and humid microhabitats that support diverse ground flora and invertebrate species[xviii].
Climate Change Adaptation and Resilience
Hawthorn species are notably resilient to swings in climate. C. monogyna, for example, tolerates a wide range of soils, including calcareous and acidic substrates, and can survive droughts thanks to its deep rooting[xix]. It is also fairly resistant to pests and diseases, compared with other hedgerow trees such as ash (Fraxinus excelsior). These traits make hawthorn a valuable candidate for climate-adaptive planting in greening schemes, be they rural or urban. Its can also thrive in disturbed and edge habitats. This resilience makes it useful in the face of habitat fragmentation and any changes in land use[xx].
Cultural, Historical, and Landscape Significance
Hawthorn holds a long-standing place in European cultural history. It has been associated with May Day celebrations, fertility rituals, and boundary marking. Indeed, it has been revered and feared in equal measure[xxi]. In medieval Britain, hawthorn hedges were used to enclose fields following the Enclosure Acts and reshaped the countryside for many years to follow[xxii]. The Enclosure Acts in England and Wales spanned from the 17th century to the early 19th century, with individual acts passed throughout that period. The practice of enclosing land via parliamentary act became more common from the 1750s. While the first act of enclosure is listed in 1605, the General Enclosure Act of 1801 is a significant landmark, enabling landowners to enclose their land without a prior act of Parliament. The last major act was the General Enclosure Act of 1845.
Before the Enclosure Acts, land ownership in England was a complex mix of communal and private rights. Most land was under the control of a manor lord, but commoners had rights to use it for things like grazing, pasture, and gathering wood. The open-field system was common, where individual tenants farmed scattered strips of land, and the land was shared for common use after the harvest. Land was also acquired through purchase or inheritance, and some individuals, for example yeomen, owned their own land outright.
Hawthorn thus contributes not only ecological but also aesthetic and cultural services to an ecosystem. Its role in shaping the visual character of rural landscapes enhances human-Nature relationships and reinforces the sense of place[xxiii].
Conservation, Management, and Threats
1. Decline and Fragmentation of Hedgerows
Sadly, despite their ecological value, hawthorn-dominated hedgerows have declined significantly since the mid-20th century thanks to agricultural intensification, field enlargement, and mechanised farming. Between 1945 and 1990, the UK lost over 50% of its hedgerow length. This fragmentation has reduced the ecological connectivity hawthorn provides, has disrupted pollinator movement and bird migration corridors, in addition to the genetic flow between plant populations.
2. Conservation Policies and Agri-environment Schemes
Recent agri-environment schemes, such as the UK’s Countryside Stewardship and the EU’s Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) greening measures, have attempted to reverse this trend by incentivising hedge restoration and planting. The CAP greening measures are mandatory practices farmers must adopt and are designed to increase the environmental sustainability of EU agriculture and contribute to the European Green Deal. Farmers are expected to implement greening measures or lose up to 30% of their Basic Payment Scheme payments. The greening rules cover three areas - crop diversification, Ecological Focus Areas, and measures to maintain permanent grassland. Studies have shown that replanting hawthorn hedges can increase species richness and ecosystem benefits over time[xxiv]. Traditional coppicing and rotational trimming methods maintain hedgerow structure, promote flowering, and prevent senescence. This is vital for sustaining a hawthorn's environmental functions[xxv].
Medicinal uses
Medicinally, hawthorn has long proved its worth, especially in relation to the heart and circulatory system. The most commonly used medicinal species are C. monogyna, C. laevigata, and C. pinnatifida (Chinese hawthorn).
Phytochemical studies have revealed that hawthorn contains several pharmacologically active compounds. These include:
Flavonoids (e.g., vitexin, hyperoside, rutin)
Oligomeric procyanidins (OPCs)
Phenolic acids (e.g., chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid)
Triterpenoids and amines[xxvi]
These compounds have been found to exhibit cardioprotective, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and vasodilatory activities[xxvii],[xxviii]. For reference, phytochemistry is the study of phytochemicals, which are chemicals derived from plants.
Historical Use in Traditional Medicine
1. Greco-Roman and Medieval Traditions
Although hawthorn is not widely discussed in classical Greco-Roman texts, Dioscorides, a Greek physician of the first century CE, mentioned the use of Rosaceae plants for their digestive and astringent properties[xxix]. Hawthorn’s prominence as a medicinal herb then increased during the medieval period in Europe. Nicholas Culpeper, the 17th-century English herbalist, recommended hawthorn berries for kidney stones and dropsy[xxx]. The Doctrine of Signatures, a popular concept in pre-modern medicine, supported hawthorn’s use for heart disease because its thorns were thought to resemble the crown of thorns, symbolically linking the tree to Christ's suffering and the human heart[xxxi]. The Doctrine of Signatures, which is also known as the Doctrine of Correspondences, is a prevalent theory in traditional medicine. It suggests natural objects such as plants and animals have visible characteristics that indicate their medicinal properties and potential uses. Essentially, if a plant or animal physically resembles a body part or disease, it is believed to have a therapeutic effect on that part or ailment.
2. Chinese Medicine
In Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), C. pinnatifida has been used since at least the Tang Dynasty (7th - 10th centuries CE) as a digestive aid, especially for food stagnation because of the overconsumption of meat and greasy food[xxxii]. Hawthorn was also used for cardiovascular issues, diarrhoea, and postpartum abdominal pain.
Medicinal Uses in European Folk Medicine
In European folk traditions, hawthorn was widely known as a heart herb and was used to treat palpitations, angina, high blood pressure, and insomnia. Hawthorn tea or tinctures were prepared from the berries or flowering tops and consumed regularly by those suffering from heart complaints.
In the British Isles, hawthorn was also used for soothing anxiety and as a general tonic for the elderly. In rural France and Germany, it featured in monastic herbal formularies, especially during and after the 16th century[xxxiii].
Nineteenth-Century Medical Recognition
The medical recognition of hawthorn in modern Western medicine began in the late 19th century. Irish physician Dr Green of Ennis, which is the county town of County Clare in mid-western Ireland, became well known for treating heart disease with a secret formula that reportedly contained hawthorn[xxxiv]. After his death, American physicians began to investigate hawthorn’s cardiac effects in more detail. Hawthorn extracts started to appear in official pharmacopoeias in Europe, particularly in Germany, where herbal medicine retained institutional support throughout the 20th century.
Contemporary Clinical Applications
1. Cardiovascular Health
Modern research has confirmed many of the cardiovascular claims associated with hawthorn. Clinical trials and pharmacological studies have demonstrated the following effects:
Positive inotropic effect: strengthens cardiac contraction without increasing oxygen consumption.
Vasodilation: improves coronary blood flow and peripheral circulation.
Anti-arrhythmic properties: stabilises heart rhythm.
Antioxidant activity: reduces the oxidative stress identified in cardiovascular disease[xxxv].
Research has shown that hawthorn extract significantly improves symptoms and exercise tolerance in patients with chronic heart failure. One trial of more than 2600 patients demonstrated that hawthorn could reduce the risk of sudden cardiac death in elderly patients with heart failure[xxxvi].
2. Hypertension and Dyslipidaemia
Some studies have suggested that hawthorn can help lower blood pressure and improve lipid profiles. Research has found a modest reduction in diastolic blood pressure in patients with type 2 diabetes by using hawthorn extract over a 16-week period[xxxvii]. It can also reduce LDL cholesterol and triglyceride levels in both human and animal studies[xxxviii].
Other Therapeutic Uses
1. Anxiety and Nervous Tension
Hawthorn is also considered mildly sedative and anxiolytic, especially in combination with other herbs such as valerian (Valeriana officinalis) or passionflower (Passiflora incarnata). One study demonstrated reduced anxiety in patients using a hawthorn-based herbal preparation[xxxix].
2. Gastrointestinal Support
In TCM and European herbal traditions, hawthorn has been used as a digestive aid, especially to relieve bloating, food stagnation, and flatulence. Its bitter-sweet taste and mild astringency may stimulate digestion and bile flow[xl].
3. Antioxidant and Anti-inflammatory Properties
In vitro and in vivo studies have shown that hawthorn extracts possess significant antioxidant activity. This may be relevant in the prevention of chronic disease. Hawthorn also exhibits anti-inflammatory properties, which may support vascular health and reduce tissue damage in ischaemic conditions.
Safety, Dosage, and Drug Interactions
Hawthorn is generally well tolerated, with few side effects reported. Mild gastrointestinal discomfort and dizziness are the most common complaints. Hawthorn may interact with digitalis glycosides, beta-blockers, and other cardiovascular medications, thereby warranting caution if polypharmacy is being used[xli].
Integration into Modern Healthcare Systems
In Germany, hawthorn is licensed as an over-the-counter medication for mild heart failure and circulatory conditions. This reflects a strong German tradition of integrating herbal medicine into state healthcare. In the UK and USA, hawthorn is available primarily as a dietary supplement, although its use is often guided by complementary and alternative practitioners. Even the World Health Organization (WHO) has written a monograph on Crataegus species, which outlines hawthorn’s traditional and modern therapeutic indications. With the WHO involved, this underscores hawthorn’s global relevance[xlii].
Cultural Significance and Symbolism in Healing
Beyond its environmental and medicinal properties, hawthorn retains cultural value in folk-healing practices. The tree has been associated with protection, love, and boundaries, and its medicinal use often accompanies rituals of wellbeing and transformation[xliii]. For example, in Irish folk tradition, hawthorn branches were hung in homes to ward off illnesses and spirits. In contemporary herbalism, such symbolic elements are often complementary to biochemical efficacy and contribute to a plant’s holistic role in healing[xliv].
Hawthorn has captured the human imagination in many different ways. It is often found at so-called thresholds - hedges, crossroads, wells, and hilltops - as a symbol of transition, vulnerability, and power[xlv].
Celtic and Pre-Christian Traditions
1. Fertility and May Day Rites
The hawthorn is closely connected with the Celtic festival of Beltane, celebrated around the beginning of May, and marking the start of summer. In pre-Christian Europe, hawthorn flowers were used in garlands and wreaths to decorate homes, cattle, and Maypoles during fertility celebrations[xlvi]. The tree’s blooming period, which coincides with the onset of summer, symbolises renewal, abundance, and reproductive vitality. Young women would gather hawthorn blossoms on Mayday Eve for use in ritual dancing, or place hawthorn under their pillows to dream of future husbands. Entire villages could erect what were known as May Trees - often hawthorn branches - to ensure prosperity for the coming year.
2. The Sacred Landscape
In Irish and Scottish Gaelic traditions, the hawthorn was considered a sacred tree and associated with fairy folk. Lone hawthorns growing near wells or hilltops were often regarded as fairy trees. They were never to be cut or disturbed for fear of retribution[xlvii]. Such beliefs are not merely historical. Even in the 20th and 21st centuries, road-building projects in Ireland, for example, have been altered to avoid disturbing hawthorn trees. In one notable case in 1999, a bypass near Latoon, County Clare, was re-routed to avoid a hawthorn believed to be sacred[xlviii]. Hawthorn trees were felt, and are still felt by many, to mark places where the human world intersects with the spiritual realm[xlix]. Offerings such as coins, rags, and food were often left by hawthorn trees in an attempt to win the favour of the gods or spirits. This was so-called propitiatory practice.
The Hawthorn in British and European Folklore
1. Protection and Malediction
Paradoxically, the hawthorn tree has been associated with both protection and curse. In English folklore, it was believed to protect against lightning, witchcraft, and evil spirits. Yet, it was simultaneously considered unlucky to bring hawthorn blossoms into the home, especially before May Day, as they were thought to bring death. This taboo may actually have a biological basis as hawthorn flowers emit trimethylamine, a chemical that is also found in decaying flesh. The scent may have contributed to its association with death. There was also a belief that hawthorn smelled of the plague, a feature that was widespread in England during the Middle Ages[l].
2. Love, Chastity, and Temptation
In southern European folklore, especially Italy and France, hawthorn was sometimes linked with chastity and virginity, likely because of its white blossoms and thorny protection[li]. However, it was also associated with illicit love and temptation.
Christian Reinterpretation
1. The Glastonbury Thorn and the Joseph of Arimathea Legend
A famous example of Christian appropriation of hawthorn mythology is the legend of the Glastonbury Thorn. According to tradition, Joseph of Arimathea, who was said to have brought the Holy Grail to Britain, planted his staff in the ground at Glastonbury, where it miraculously took root and became a hawthorn tree that flowered twice a year - once in May and once at Christmas. This latter flowering out of season reinforced the tree’s sacred status and linked it with miraculous Christian narratives. The original Glastonbury Thorn was venerated until it was destroyed during the English Civil War around 1653. Cuttings were taken, and it was replanted latterly in 1951, to commemorate the Festival of Britain. Thereafter, it was vandalised multiple times, although largely removed by its landowner in 2019, albeit with the trunk remaining.
2. Marian Symbolism
In medieval Christian iconography, hawthorn was sometimes associated with the Virgin Mary. The whiteness of the flowers symbolised purity, and hawthorn thorns evoked Christ’s crown of thorns. In some French rural traditions, hawthorn branches were used in processions for the Feast of the Assumption, further linking it to Marian devotion. Marian devotion is the practice of piety and veneration directed towards Mary, the mother of Jesus, within certain Christian traditions. It is a way for believers to express their faith and love for Jesus through recognising Mary's role as the mother of God.
Ritual and Symbolic Uses
1. Healing and Divination
In some European traditions, hawthorn was used in folk medicine and magical healing. Decoctions of hawthorn leaves, flowers, and berries were employed to treat heart ailments—a practice later validated by scientific research confirming the cardiotonic properties of Crataegus extracts[lii]. Decoction is a method of extraction by boiling herbal or plant material to dissolve the chemicals of the material. It is the most common preparation method in various herbal medicine systems[liii].
2. Binding and Boundary
Hawthorn’s widespread use in hedgerows has both symbolic and practical dimensions. In European tradition, a hawthorn hedge represents not just a physical boundary but a metaphysical one, too. It offers a safe space from the wild and chaotic world beyond. In Germanic folklore, witches emphasised the boundary by "riding the hedge," as this symbolised their movement between worlds[liv].
Conclusions
The hawthorn tree is both ecologically vital and culturally rich. I may spend much of my time trying to avoid being stuck by its thorns, not always successfully, but the tree is still a fascination. I have lost count of the number of near misses for my eyes. However, despite this, the hawthorn supports biodiversity, enhances landscape, and bridges traditional knowledge with modern medicine. It is a symbol of mythology, a proven aid in cardiovascular care, and exemplifies how natural heritage can influence sustainable futures. The hawthorn tree may be enigmatic but protecting and integrating it into environmental policy, cultural practice, and healthcare reflects its enduring role in many walks of life.
Go get yourself a hawthorn.
***
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#HawthornTree #Crataegus #MedicinalPlants #WildlifeCorridors #Hedgerows #TraditionalMedicine #PlantEcology #HerbalRemedies #FolkHealing #BiodiversitySupport #HeartHealthNaturally #NatureConservation #SacredTrees #CelticMythology #NativeTreesUK #ClimateResilience #HerbalHistory #TreeMythology #CarbonSequestration #PollinatorPlants
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